Alexander

Son of Zeus

To date, no monarch in the world is as radiantly emblematic of heroism as much as Alexander the Great, nor as deserving of such a title. Years and years after his Macedonian phalanx marched across the lands, his name still reverberates throughout the known world. His ferocious personality and perennial drive to accomplish the impossible has made his name a by-word for masculine power, bravery and struggle across the aeons.

Alexander can be said to be one of the singular individuals in history to inaugurate an entirely new era, the Hellenistic Era, through his achievements. The might of his armies and depth of his search for knowledge spread the ancient Hellenic culture and religion throughout the core of Eurasia. Due to his colossal achievements, the sheer spread of Greek culture passed from the straits of Gibraltar to the outskirts of the Chinese kingdoms, enduring for more than seven hundred years.

BOYHOOD

He was born as the son of the second King Phillip of Macedon and through Phillip he was known to be a descendant of Hercules.

King Phillip had many major achievements to his name: he reformed the Macedonian army root and branch, placing emphasis on the Phalanx that Alexander would use to the fullest extent, and pioneered the usage of siege warfare and shock tactics.

The king created many urban centers in Macedonia by moving people out of their ancestral villages. Tribal enemies of Macedon were destroye; he had conquered major parts of Thrace and Illyria. The voracious king had started to add much of Greece to the territory of his realm and had started to assert Macedon’s independence from its traditional master, Persia.

Alexander’s mother, Olympias, was a fierce woman of major note. She was the sister of the King of Epirus. The mysterious princess was also a known occultist and practitioner of Orphic rites, also holding a major position in a significant cult of Cybele from Mount Haemus in Thrace, being rumoured to sleep on a bed of venomous snakes who would never harm her. Olympias presence was powerful and unnerving. She was known to be supremely ambitious and ruthless, not fitting the image of a traditional Macedonian queen. Her enemies at court tended to suffer from misfortunes.

It is known in the ancient annals that Olympias was struck in a dream by a lightning bolt, causing a sacred fire that spread to all corners of the earth before petering out abruptly. It was known from that point that the son of the king had a significant tie to exalted and fabled Zeus. Phillip also dreamed he was putting a seal on the womb of his wife with the image of the seal showing a roaring lion.

On the day of Alexander’s birth, Philip’s horses won the Olympian Games and his general Parmenion roundly defeated the Illyrian armies. The Temple of Artemis suddenly caught fire. All of these omens seemed to confirm something was not of the regular order about the boy. Although many of the priests were distraught from the destruction of the Temple, Philip retorted that the son who came about through three successes would always be victorious and that Artemis had simply come to witness the birth.

Both parents, however, had a habit of making enemies.

During his childhood, Alexander quickly noted the advantages that the recently passed ruler of Thebes, Epaminondas, had gained in surrounding himself with philosophers and learned men. Although Alexander admired his father’s achievements as an extremely potent and powerful ruler, Alexander knew his father was partially filling the power vacuum left by this mysterious man’s death and paid close attention. He also heard stories from Persian magnates such as Sisines in exile about the quality of the scholars and priests of Asia that filled him with envy and a desire to unlock the secrets of that continent.

Consequently, he courted the attentions of some of the most learned men of Greece, even playing boyish tricks to do so. He also went out of his way to attract attention to the Persian envoys, asking them of endless updates to the situation in that country.

He soon became best friends with Hephaestion, an optimistic and learned boy of distant relation who would become his lifelong companion due to his marked loyalty, and Craterus, an older and taciturn boy who functioned as a role model for Alexander through having sublime skills on the battlefield.

The talents of Hephaestion lay in personal combat and in organizational skils, from which Alexander learned much. From his senior Craterus, he learned much about higher order military matters, such as how to be the best of generals, something that Alexander could only partially learn from his father due to their strained relationshp. Alexander understood the value of eternal friendship from the Iliad, from Pelopidas and from much of the Pythagorean literature he studied. Hephaestion functioned as his left hand, Craterus did so as his right fist.

Witnessing the alienation his squabbling parents inflicted on the court, he wished to build a core of men – and some women – loyal to him to the end of time, his Companions and Guardians, a group he hoped would become mythological figures, inscribed into history forever.

Among others, to that end, he cultivated friendships with Ptolemy, Nearchus, Laomedon, Perdiccas and other talents among the aristocracy. It is a testament to how truly beloved Alexander was that nearly all of these boys would become men who followed him to the peaks of the Himalayas and back. Frustratingly, however, Alexander could never prevent disputes among all of them.

From boyhood, Alexander was pious and strict in his adherence to the Gods. Partially due to his strange levels of power, he never doubted they were there. He always backed up his words relating to them with deeds and never forgot a pledge made, as to fully justify the majesty of the Primordial Ones:

He worshipped the Gods magnificently from his early youth and used incense so lavishly that who was austere and frugal, exclaimed: “Make offerings like these when you have subdued the region where such things grow.” Mindful of these words, when he subdued incense-bearing Arabia he sent many talents’ weight of perfumes to Leonidas (Plut. Alex. xxv. 4 f) with instructions not to be too stingy thereafter in honouring the Gods, since he knew that they repaid so generously gifts cheerfully offered.¹

Leonidas was approved to be the tutor of Alexander and essentially became his foster-father.

In spite of not taking things to the extremes of his foster father, frugality was another characteristic of Alexander, following on from the example of Socrates and Epaminondas. Being bought or bribed horrified him. It is known throughout his life that Alexander shot down any attempt to be won over by money; the suggestion of it sent him into a rage.

He was solely driven by the idea of being one of the names on the door of Posterity. The more the court offered in terms of pleasures, the more Alexander supposed less fame would be given to him and the more would be credited to his father, whose relationship with him was becoming increasingly difficult.

Although Alexander was known to use his fists and be highly volatile, particularly in defending the honor of his friends and his ambition, as he came to puberty, he practiced a strong degree and scrutiny of moderation in erotic matters. Observing keenly how his mother leveraged her own power and did not consort out of desperation, he chose to participate in such unions very carefully and did not conduct himself in such a way that distractions in the dangerous Macedonian court could have any power over him.

After all, from childhood, he also had enemies. Enemies such as Cassander, another distant relative.

He was known to be able to quote the Iliad and many of Euripides’ plays from memory. Alexander put a high emphasis on matters of culture and did not dismiss its’ influence, nor did he consider it antagonistic to his military focus.

The heroic character exhibited as a child is best represented in the story of him taming Bucephalas, the most famous stallion in history. Ferocious and highly-strung, the horse had been brought to Pellas. Every man who attempted to mount it failed.

As Philip grew frustrated and ordered the horse to be taken away, saying it was utterly wild and untamable, Alexander, who was present, said, 'What a horse they are losing due to inexperience and inability to handle him with skill!

Philip remained silent at first, but as Alexander repeatedly spoke out and showed strong emotion, Philip said, 'Are you reproaching your elders as if you know more than they do, or think you can manage a horse better?'

[…]

When he saw that the horse had let go of its defiance but was still eager to run, he urged it on, now pursuing it with a bolder voice and using his heel to spur it forward. At first, those around Philip were filled with anxiety and remained silent. But when Alexander turned the horse back after completing the course, riding confidently and full of joy, all the others burst into cheers.

His father, it is said, even shed some tears of joy, and when Alexander dismounted, he kissed his head and said, 'My son, seek a kingdom equal to yourself, for Macedonia is too small for you.' ²

The precious animal subsequently accompanied Alexander in all of his conquests.

Philip considered that his son was not normal. To that end, he considered a number of tutors for the young boy, whose name was already the subject of rumors throughout Greece. There was Speusippus who had succeeded Plato at his academy, among others. Aristotle, however, came strongly into vision as the only appropriate mature tutor.

The philosopher was installded at a regular and secret school at Mieza where he taught not only Alexander but much of the Macedonian aristocracy. The great mind of Greece and his pupil soon forged a relationship.

Although Alexander had dabbled in the occult prior to his association, it is known Alexander was taught intricate occult doctrines and methods, including advanced matters of theurgical rite to summon the Gods:

ἔοικε δὲ Ἀλέξανδρος οὐ μόνον τὸν ἠθικὸν καὶ πολιτικὸν παραλαβεῖν λόγον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ἀπορρήτων καὶ βαθυτέρων διδασκαλιῶν,ἃς οἱ ἄνδρες ἰδίως ἀκροαματικὰς καὶ ἐποπτικὰς.

It would appear, moreover, that Alexander not only received from his master his ethical and political doctrines in instruction, but also participated in those secret and more profound teachings which philosophers designate by the special terms “acroamatic” and “epoptic,” and do not impart to many.²

He keenly observed through the example of his semi-divine teacher that the world was already collapsing into a lack of genuine spirituality. It was this that turned Alexander’s mind towards establishing a true Empire of the Gods.

Although he admired Persia deeply, he also recognized that the manner of Persian religion since Darius the Great had increasingly become devoid of quality and was taking a perverse orientation.

CHAREONEA AND THE DEFEAT OF THEBES

The seventeen-year-old Alexander accompanied his father to fight against the Maedi tribe, after which he became the left-wing commander of Philip’s royal cavalry. He soon came to Chaeronea with his father to face the threat of Athens, Corinth and Thebes, alongside another dozen Greek cities, who had assembled to destroy Macedon.

While his father led the direct and gruelling assault against the Athenian infantry, Alexander used ingenious encirclement tactics to smash into the other side with his portion of the phalanx and directly confronted the Sacred Band of Thebes, a group he had often idolized in the literature he read compulsively as a child.

THE DISPUTE WITH PHILIP

After the battle, however, it appears Philip, who was always in two minds, felt insecure at the successes of his son who in his estimation appeared to be going too fast. He was already battling with Olympias for control of the court and had enough of her scheming. Snubbing her, he took the opportunity to marry Cleopatra, the niece of Olympias.

At the announcement of this, Attalus, the uncle of Cleopatra, said he wished a true heir would come along, which caused Alexander to throw a chalice at him. Father and son came to blows. Olympias and Alexander soon left for Epirus itself.

This came to great frustration. Alexander ordered his mother never to interfere with politics and it seemed as if his own father held him in some suspicion. Never one to whine, he continued to do battle to enlarge the borders of Macedon, fighting off Illyrian tribes at the court of the Illyrian king.

Philip was assassinated by an individual outraged at being violated by Attalus. The important individuals of the Kingdom pronounced Alexander as King of Macedon on the spot. Greece and Thrace almost completely erupted in rebellion. The young king set about correcting this state of affairs immediately, setting off with his father’s most capable general, Parmenion.

He went to Athens and subjugated it quickly, despite the demands of Democritus to assassinate the young king. Here, Alexander’s infamous encounter with Diogenes the philosopher occurred.

Alexander then turned his attention towards the Thracians, who he destroyed in the Battle of the Carts by capturing the walled island of Peuce. This battle in itself demonstrates Alexander’s exceptional skills in his ability to turn around a near suicidal-situation and may be too long to write of in this excerpt.

Once again, the Athenians and Thebans rebelled. Alexander decided to totally destroy Thebes.

In spite of his brutal acts at times, one attribute of Alexander becomes obvious. During the siege of Thebes, Timocleia, a noble woman, was raped by a Thracian commander (expressly against the orders of Alexander). Afterwards, the commander asked her where her valuables were and while peering over a well, she kicked him in it and slowly stoned him to death.

When brought to his presence, Alexander said she had accomplished quickly what he would have done himself and in spite of quickly learning that Timocleia was the sister of his most hated enemy at Chaeronea, he permitted her and her children complete civic freedom and a funded life on the Greek purse.

During this time, a variety of threats began to appear from Persia that were the traditional signals for conquest. A large army had been spotted appearing from Asia Minor with brothers of the Shah Darius III in attendance Alexander was elected the head of the Greek empire.

He anointed the grave of Achilles, his highest hero, with oil, and ran around it with his Companions.

ASIA MINOR

Alexander met the Persian armies at the Granicus river. Parmenion advised Alexander to instruct the troops to not cross the river, which Alexander felt was cowardice and not befitting of a king. After some of the troops on his right flank did so, crossing the river in perilous stormy weather, the elite guard of the Persians including the commanders of Arsames, Spithridates and Arsites came across to meet them, which triggered a trap set by Alexander.

Though the Greeks surrounded the Persians, this battle in increasingly muddy and desperate conditions set off a very dangerous event for Alexander’s companions. Alexander in wearing his highly ostentatious armor was isolated on a bank, nearly beheaded by the Persian noble Rhoesaces and son-in-law of the Shah named Mithridates, as well as being deprived of one: his friend Cleitus came to save him.

Parmenion with his phalanx on the left flank, meanwhile, battled the Bactrian and Medean cavalry. This contingent under Rheomithres panicked as they saw the Persian nobles fall, evacuating the battlefield. Alexander had won his first major engagement.

ISSUS AND THE LEVANT
EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGN

Alexander was hailed as a hero by the Egyptians, who had despised Persian hegemony over their lands since the shah Cambyses had conquered the country. Typically, Egyptians were critical of foreign rulers, but the evidence shows that Alexander was highly regarded and even crowned in the Temple of Ptah.

The Greek king was only in Egypt for a brief period but undertook a rather ambitious building project, restoring many temples, such as the Sacred Barge complex at the Temple of Luxor. He also altered the Persian taxation system to fit Greek norms, alleviating many debts on the people and preventing the constant famines that plagued the ancient land.

He went to the oracle of Amon Ra (a separate deity to the Amon we are about to mention) at the Siwa Oasis. The great medium to the Gods pronounced him officially as one of the sons of the highest Amon (Zeus). From this point onwards, Alexander was portrayed with the horns of the ram on his coinage and some began to regard him as divine, as the words of the Egyptian priesthood carried a heavy weight in those days.

GAUGAMELA AND THE CONQUEST OF BABYLON

Gaugamela was the most important battle of the entire campaign. Alexander diligently participated in rites to the Goddess Nemesis and the Erinyes, along with the God Alastor prior to the battle, calling upon their help.

He knew Darius had prepared a gigantic force consisting of the most brutal and efficient units of the entire empire to face him, including the core of his famous Immortals and a large amount of elephants. Yet Alexander’s response was to peacefully sleep for up to twelve hours in camp prior to the battle, confident in his abilities.

Darius was flanked by Bessus, the governor of Bactria, who followed and attacked Alexander with a force ten times the size of the Macedonian king when Alexander attempted to outflank the Persian army. Lacking any caution and believing Alexander had isolated himself enough to weaken the morale of his troops, Darius ordered a charge of the center force of Agrinian missile men and phalanxes with his chariots and elephants, believing it would be an easy victory. The Greek armies, however, cleverly made gaps through the chariot lines and disoriented the large animals. Mazaeus on the Persian right charged at Parmenion, who became overwhelmed but remained steadfast.

The center of Greek phalanxes and missile throwers soon came at the King of Kings directly, provoking him into a panic. Alexander rapidly turned to the left with his Companions, determined to capture Darius once again. A brutal slog of hand-to-hand combat ensued, with his horse even being killed. The Persian Shah, although he entered the fight, was convinced by his advisors and poisoners to abandon the battle.

Many in Babylon saw Alexander as a liberator. Babylonian sources of the time such as BCHP 4 and the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries reference him as ‘King of the World’ and refer to an order Alexander issued to his troops not to enter their houses, showing his sanctity and respect of life. Recognizing Mazaeus valor in battle as the only one not to flee, he made the Persian governor the satrap of Babylonia under his own authority, the first Persian to hold such high office in Alexander’s new empire.

Alexander greatly respected the Antiquity of the Mesopotamian civilizations. It is known in the annals of history that he consciously surrounded himself with the Babylonian priests, which ignorant-minded people of the time could not understand. As High Priest Hoodedcobra has related, the priests put some tests to him such as whether he could see a Demon in the room with them – he passed it with flying colors.

Upon entering Babylon, he performed rites to Marduk (Bel), the chief Babylonian God, and ordered the rebuilding of Marduk’s great temple (the Esagila), which had been destroyed under Xerxes’ orders.

Some have even alleged that the identity of Serapis, the Hellenic guise of Osiris that would become prevalent in Egypt and across the Roman world, actually came from Babylon during Alexander’s initiation into the mysteries there.

At this time, it should be relayed that the Jews, at that time an obscure group yet on the ascendant in Babylon, attempted to have an audience with Alexander, attempting to proclaim him as the ‘New Cyrus’ who would liberate them, knowing his admiration of the former. They also came to him with pleas to punish Babylon and to remove idols, as Cyrus had done to Nabonidus. He, outraged, rebuffed their advances entirely – he could see through them.

Since Alexander fundamentally had more things to do than to obsess over a deviant Middle Eastern tribe, the Jews have created several false histories around this, presenting Alexander as a tall and plumed conqueror bowing down to the Jewish high priest in the Talmud and Midrash. In order to desperately curry favor with Alexander, they also started naming their children ‘Sender’. Alexander demanded their cultural Hellenization and the instatement of Greek taxation (Jews characterize the latter as one of the worst disasters in their history) in an effort to get them to submit, an order they ultimately defied.

THE KING OF PERSIA

After overthrowing Darius III, Alexander inherited the vast Achaemenid administrative system. Rather than dismantling it, he largely retained the Persian satrapy (provincial) structure. In many regions, he reappointed or confirmed Persian officials who submitted to him, a pragmatic move to ensure continuity and local support.

Nevertheless, Alexander persisted in integrating Persian protocol where it served his rule. He began to style himself as a successor of the Achaemenids – for instance, taking the title “King of Asia” and possibly using the honorific “King of Kings.” He maintained a royal chancellery that issued decrees in the imperial languages and upheld ceremonial practices that Persians expected of their monarch. By doing so, Alexander signaled to Persian nobles and subjects that he respected their governmental heritage and saw himself as the legitimate heir to the Persian kings, not merely a foreign conqueror.

These policies were controversial among his Companions, who often reviled him for styling himself in a Persian way and felt he was adopting the manners of a God. Alexander wanted to create a global empire for the Gods marked by a titanic spiritual and military elite, which was not understood by many other than Hephaestion.

In everyday governance, Alexander did not loot temples for revenue. This is a notable point, as it shows his reverence for the Gods. He always spared religious treasuries. For example, when his troops wanted to plunder the shrine of Zeus at Babylon or other rich temples, Alexander forbade it. His respect extended to Persian sacred fire altars. There is no record of him violating them, and later on, his general Ptolemy (in Egypt) even incorporated Zoroastrian priests into his court, a trend started under Alexander.

Alexander also incorporated many Persian nobles into his own ranks. Not only did he retain some as provincial governors, as noted above, but he invited Persians into his court and army at high levels. For instance, the Persian prince Oxyartes (father of Alexander’s wife Roxana) and even Darius’s brother Oxathres became members of Alexander’s inner circle. Persian nobles and their sons served as officers, diplomats, and royal pages. Alexander ordered the training of a corps of young Persian nobles in the Macedonian military style. Arrian records that 30,000 Persian boys (the Epigoni, meaning “Successors”) were taught to use Macedonian weapons and tactics.

One notable “reform” was Alexander’s introduction of a common currency standard across his empire. The Persian kings had minted gold darics and silver sigloi, but Alexander replaced these with coins of his own: gold staters and silver tetradrachms struck to the Attic standard (the weight standard used in Greece). Enormous quantities of bullion seized from Persian treasuries were melted down and re-coined. (Modern estimates suggest Alexander captured up to 180,000 talents of gold and silver from Persian stockpiles, including the famously vast hoards at Susa and Persepolis.By converting this wealth into coin and adopting the widely recognized Attic standard, Alexander effectively monetized the Persian economy.

Beyond the battlefield, Alexander channeled resources into administration and construction. He continued the Achaemenid practice of investing in infrastructure: repairing roads, maintaining the Royal Road communication system, and improving cities. For instance, after reaching Babylon, Alexander ordered the rebuilding of the temple of Bel (Marduk) and other shrines that had been destroyed by Xerxes decades before

INDIA AND CAPTURE OF HERCULES’ AORNOS

The siege of Aornos Rock was a remarkable feat of military ingenuity and sheer determination by Alexander the Great and his general Ptolemy. Confronted by the daunting fortress positioned atop a steep and seemingly impregnable mountain named Elum Ghar and across on another elevated peak, Alexander resolved to achieve what even the legendary Heracles could not. Both historians depict Alexander as meticulously strategic, initially relying on local guides to navigate the difficult terrain and identify tactical vulnerabilities. According to Arrian, Alexander systematically constructed extensive ramps and earthworks, bridging deep ravines and steadily moving siege engines upward, despite relentless resistance from the defenders.

His persistence was on full display, including his direct involvement in inspiring his exhausted troops. The king supervised construction efforts day and night, continuously urging his soldiers forward even in the face of terror due to the formidable landscape and entrenched resistance. Arrian further reinforces this story, noting the careful coordination and discipline required to maintain morale and logistics under exceptionally challenging conditions. Alexander's army slowly reduced the defenders' options including using feints such as a flame drawing the enemy out to fight for two days, inching closer to their heavily fortified positions.

After successfully completing the earthworks and siege ramps, he led a bold and aggressive attack directly against the fortress. Faced with imminent defeat, the demoralized defenders abandoned their posts and fled, enabling Alexander’s forces to triumphantly occupy the summit. Plutarch highlights this victory as emblematic of his superlative ambition, conquering a fortress reputed to be invincible and thereby achieving enduring fame. Aornos demonstrated Alexander’s tactical genius and unparalleled perseverance.

MALLI AND BACK TO PERSIA

Alexander nearly met with death in the dangerous manouvers of the Hydaspes River. He was gravely wounded during his campaign against the Malli (Mallian) people, in what is now the vicinity of Multan in modern-day Pakistan. At the time, this region was part of the broader Indian subcontinent. During the siege of a Mallian fortress in 326 BCE featuring extremely bloody hand-to-hand, street-by-street conflict, Alexander personally led the assault on the walls, was struck by an arrow, and nearly died from his injuries before being rescued by his men, Peucestas.

Peucestas is often singled out for his bravery because he fought off many warriors to get the king to safety and defended the severely wounded Alexander with the “sacred shield” (a trophy taken from the Temple of Athena at Troy). Other companions, such as Leonnatus and the soldier Abreas, also played crucial roles in keeping enemy fire at bay and helping Alexander until the rest of the Macedonian troops broke through to rescue him.

His soldiers, exhausted from endless fighting, could march no more.

HEPHAESTION’S DEATH

After completing his campaign in the Indian subcontinent, Alexander led his army back westward, traversing the treacherous Gedrosian Desert. The crossing was marked by harsh conditions, crippling heat, and severe shortages of food and water, resulting in substantial losses among his troops. Despite these hardships, Alexander’s overarching goal remained the continued stabilization of his empire, which he had expanded dramatically through conquest. His resolve to return to Persia stemmed in part from the need to restore control over restive satraps and governors who had begun to abuse their positions during his extended absence.

Once he arrived in Persia, Alexander made a notable effort to integrate the Persian aristocracy and customs into his dominion more fully. His famous mass marriage ceremony at Susa illustrated this policy: he and many of his officers married Persian noblewomen in a grand affair intended to symbolically unite Greek and Persian cultures. Alexander believed that by merging the traditions of both peoples, he could lay a firmer foundation for the lasting governance of his vast empire. Some of his own Macedonian officers remained wary of this policy, seeing it as an undesirable shift away from their cherished homeland values.

In an attempt to foster unity, Alexander also adopted certain elements of Persian court protocol, including the wearing of Persian clothing and the practice of proskynesis, bowing or prostrating before the king. This move caused friction with many of his Macedonian companions, who were accustomed to treating their king as a “first among equals” rather than a distant monarch. Nonetheless, Alexander persisted, believing that his new approach served as a pragmatic response to the challenge of ruling so vast and diverse a territory.

Meanwhile, Alexander took steps to address both corruption and inefficiency among his provincial administrators. Returning satraps and military officials faced stringent reviews of their governance. Some were removed from power or severely punished for mismanagement and exploitation of the local populations. By stabilizing the governmental structure in Persia, Alexander hoped to ensure that resources and tribute continued to flow to the royal treasury, key to maintaining his huge standing army and ambitious building projects.

Despite considerable administrative demands, Alexander did not remain static in one place. He journeyed extensively through the provinces, dispensing justice, inspecting garrisons, and establishing new settlements when needed. Everywhere he went, he reinforced his image as a ruler who combined Greek and Persian ideals: a formidable conqueror, a patron of cultural fusion, and an absolute monarch committed to sustaining order.

The ambitious, beautiful and ruthless Roxana from Bactria, a woman dancer remarked to be much like Olympias, soon became the wife of Alexander, and soon bore him an heir, also named Alexander. However, Alexander also married Stateira, the daughter of Darius, along with marrying his Companions to elite Persian women in the Marriages of Susa.

During this period, Hephaestion, Alexander’s closest friend, was promoted to chiliarch, an office that placed him second only to Alexander in the command structure. Hephaestion played a critical role in maintaining the loyalty of the troops, managing administrative affairs, and acting as a trusted advisor in matters of state. He enjoyed considerable influence in court circles, further symbolizing the unity of old Macedonian allegiances with the evolving Persian-influenced royal court.

Hephaestion fell gravely ill in Ecbatana in 324 BCE and died not long afterward. Alexander was said to be inconsolable at the loss of his dearest companion. Reports describe how he drove around on chariot in mirror image of Achilles, lay hopelessly alone and forbade music, decreed an extensive period of mourning throughout the empire, and even staged lavish funeral rites worthy of a hero after the oracle of Zeus Ammon affirmed his request to promote Hephaestion to that level. His death left an immense void for Alexander, foreshadowing the final months of the Macedonian king’s earthly life, which would also end abruptly in Babylon the following year.

THE END

Alexander began to associate with the Babylonian priesthood more and more. He left Ecbatana and made his way toward Babylon, the city he intended to use as his administrative capital. Although still mourning, he continued to issue orders to strengthen governance in the far-flung provinces, aiming to ensure that the satraps and local rulers understood the permanence of Macedonian power.

During these final months, Alexander turned his attention to unfinished projects and the future expansion of his domain. One of his most concrete plans was a campaign to subdue Arabia, which he believed would complete the encirclement of the Persian Gulf and extend Macedonian influence along strategic trade routes. He ordered the construction of a fleet and the recruitment of supplies, shipbuilders, and navigators, reflecting the grand ambition that still drove him despite the personal tragedies he had endured.

In Babylon, Alexander renewed efforts to integrate Hellenes and Persians into a functioning imperial administration. He arranged for mass demobilizations of some veterans to return home, partially as a reward for their years of service and partly to reduce the financial burden on the treasury. However, he also replenished his army with fresh troops from the eastern satrapies, maintaining the core of a formidable fighting force for future expeditions. Alexander was firmly focused on solidifying the foundation of his empire.

Even as Alexander planned for fresh ventures, a series of troubling omens and unsettling portents seemed to cast a shadow over his final days.

Alexander entertained foreign envoys from as far as Carthage and Italy, reinforcing his reputation as a world conqueror open to diplomatic exchange. Simultaneously, he convened councils with top officers like Perdiccas, Ptolemy, and Seleucus to refine his plans for both immediate governance and the upcoming Arabian campaign. His ability to maintain a frenetic schedule and supervising administrative reforms underscored his indefatigable energy, a quality that had propelled his conquests from Greece to India.

Suddenly, however, Alexander fell seriously ill after a banquet held by his Companion Medius. Over roughly two weeks, his condition worsened, with fever and debilitating pain. Classical sources (Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, and others) differ on the exact cause, offering possibilities ranging from overindulgence in drink, poison plots, or simple malaria contracted in the marshy environs of Babylon. Whatever the true source, his entourage grew increasingly anxious, for no physician’s efforts seemed to stem the decline of the thirty-two-year-old king whose vigor had once seemed inexhaustible.

As death approached, Alexander reportedly lost the ability to speak coherently but was still conscious enough to acknowledge his soldiers by nodding or gesturing in farewell when they filed past his bedside. He was asked to whom he would leave his empire, and tradition holds that he murmured a cryptic response: “to the strongest.”

On June 11 323 BCE, Alexander the Great left the world in Babylon. His absnence ended one of history’s most extraordinary chapters ever written.